Ethical and Legal Issues in the Couseling Profession Research Paper

Ethical and Legal Issues in the Couseling Profession - Research Paper Example All in all, these dilemmas and decisions have made me more prudent and more discerning in my approaches to patient care. This essay will now serve as my reflective ethical autobiography with various sources and theories used to help support and evaluate the choices I have made during my immersion. Discussion One of the main teachings which were drilled to us by our professors was the fact that there were various ethical principles which we had to follow and consider with each patient that we cared for. These main ethical principles include: beneficence, patient autonomy or self-determination, non-maleficence, and justice. These principles helped me develop my sense of right or wrong. Whenever I doubted my actions or did not know whether my actions were right or wrong, I always considered these four ethical principles as a guide or as a foundation for my decisions. Beauchamp and Childress identified these ethical principles which should govern the ethical practice of our profession. T hey discuss that the principle of autonomy is basically about the personal rule of oneself which is apart or free from the influences of others and from the limitations which negate meaningful choice (Beauchamp and Childress, 1994). This autonomous decision making process allows the individual to act in accordance with his plans and his choices. Without such autonomy, an individual is dictated by others and is incapable of acting on his desires or plans (Beauchamp and Childress, 1994). In other words, patient autonomy is about allowing the patient to make his own decisions about his care – without forcing him or influencing him to decide in a particular way. In my practice, I often had to explain to patients the different types of care or interventions which can be implemented in their favor. There were times when I was tempted to influence their choices and to sway them towards making decisions which, I felt, were more favorable to the patients and to me. But noting that I m ight be unjustly and unfairly influencing them to make decisions on their care, I ended up being more restrained and being more balanced in explaining possible choices in their care. By allowing them to make their own choices, I was able to afford more respect to my patients as individuals. Patient autonomy is also about respecting the patient’s decision even if such decision is not the best decision for him. One time, I encountered a patient who refused further care and counseling. I knew that he needed to be in therapy and he needed to undergo intensive rehabilitation. However he wanted to undergo a less structured rehabilitation process and he wanted to do it outside the mental health institution. Even if I knew that his choices may not be effective in rehabilitating him, ethics dictated that I had to respect his choice. And so we released him and allowed him to make his own choices of care. The principle of beneficence is based on doing acts of kindness for others (Beauch amp and Childress, 1994). In essence, this principle â€Å"asserts an obligation to help others further their important and legitimate interests† (Beauchamp and Childress, 1994, p. 260). In applying this principle to my counseling practice, I often encountered situations where I knew that my patients needed more intensive counseling. One time, I encountered a high school student whom I assessed to be depressed. She had significant self-image

Managing across Cultures Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Managing across Cultures - Essay Example There are significant differences which are caused by cultural outlook when it comes to working in an organization. Values in the work place are significantly affected by culture. . A study of US multinational corporations found out that poor intercultural management skills still constitute a major management problem. (Deresky) Theories and Models of culture Different researchers and sociologists have proposed different theories about cultural dimensions. Notable amongst these are the Geert Hofstede's theory of cultural dimensions and the 7d model developed by Fons Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner. There is a growing body of research that focuses on how cultures vary. This research ranges from the pioneering efforts of Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck (1961) to the widely referenced approach of Hofstede (1980), to the recent work of Hampden-Turner and Trompenaar (1993). The Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck (Kluckhohn, 1961) model has identified six basic dimensions which cover the cultural orientation in societies. These include people's view of nature, humanity and interpersonal relationships. These also include how people view of activity and achievement; time and space. Hofstede (Hofstede G. , 1980) cultural dimensions provide a more comprehensive analysis of cultural dimensions amongst different nations and countries. He focused on 160000 managers and employers of IBM in 60 different countries and found four dimensions of cultural differences which set these countries apart from each other. These dimensions are individualism vs. collectivism, power distance, uncertainty avoidance, and masculinity vs. femininity and form the basis for work related attitudes. The most recent cultural model is that of Hampden-Turner and Trompenaar released in 1993. 15000 international managers were administered questionnaires and value differences of practitioners of capitalism were identified. These values include: universalism vs. particularism, analyzing vs. integrating, individualism vs. co mmunitarianism, inner-directed vs. outer-directed orientation, time as sequence vs. time as synchronization, achieved status vs. ascribed status, and equality vs. hierarchy. Limitations of the Hofstede model Though these models are very useful in analyzing the culture of different countries but they have certain limitations. First and the foremost the fact that the averages of that certain country do not relate to the individuals of that country and extreme variations may be possible. Thus the Hofstede model can be used as a guide to understand different cultures but is not an absolute dictation. Secondly, the data collected by all these sociologists was collected by different questionnaires and therefore limitations could also be applied to the data that was collected. And lastly since it has been considerable amount of time since that research, it is very much possible that the country's culture has changed either by external or internal influences. (Geert Hofstede cultural dimens ions) Analysis of different countries and their cross cultural differences affecting work. The two different cultures selected to analyze are the American and the Mexican culture and the problems which may arise as a result of the differences in cultural values which effect work value and habits. Remarkable differences cause problems at work when

Mental Imagery Vividness Essay Example for Free

Mental Imagery Vividness Essay Abstract This review examined the hypothesis that mental imagery vividness can be used as a predictor of hallucinatory experience. Earlier studies provided supporting evidences to this hypothesis, showing hallucinating population has higher mental imagery vividness comparing to nonhallucianting population. However, as a result of varied operationalization and measurements of mental imagery, contradicting results abound, showing no significant difference of mental imagery vividness between halluciantors and nonhallucinators. No clear evidences can be used to determine whether the hypothesis is valid or not so far. On the other hand, development of neurological studies provided a new perspective for looking into the relationship between mental imagery and the experience of hallucination. Keywords: mental imagery vividness, hallucination, schizophrenia Mental Imagery Vividness as a Predictor of Hallucination: A Literature Review Mental imagery, as defined by Finke (1989), is an experience significantly resembling that of perceiving, but it occurs in the absence of an adequate physical stimulus. It exists in all of the seven sensory modalities, such as visual, auditory, and olfactory (Thomas, 1999). Mental imagery is believed to be in close relationship with some core psychological mechanisms such as perception and memory, and holding its unique role in contributing to cognitive performance (Kosslyn, 1994). For example, evidences suggested that visual imagery ability predicts visuospatial memory performance (Kail, 1997). Hallucination is an experience that largely resembles mental imagery, because of its perceptual nature as well as absence of appropriate stimuli (Sack, Van de Ven, Etschenberg, Schatz, Linden, 2005). Nevertheless, the two distinguish from each other by the individual’s ability of voluntary control, as well a s his/her ability to determine the source of the experience. Specifically, mental imagery is generally regarded as being actively generated and can be intentionally controlled, while hallucination is most times beyond intention and control. The operator of mental imagery is usually aware of its internal source, while not necessarily so hallucinator. (Bentall, 1990). Hallucination, especially the form of auditory verbal hallucinations (AVH), is an important hallmark of schizophrenia (Wible, 2009). AVH is the perception of voices in the absence of sensory input. AVH has distinct clinical significance, as it affects about 70% of patients with schizophrenia (Sartorius et al., 1978; Silbersweig Stern, 1996). Furthermore, there have been increasing evidences supporting that hallucination is not a rare case in non-clinical population, either. It is now believed to exist on a spectrum from comparably innocuous forms in non-clinical population to a more pathological manifestation in schizophrenics (see review by Bentall, 1990). Because of its significant implication in psychopathology, continuous work has been going on to find out the risk factors and predictors for hallucination. The relationship between mental imagery and hallucination has interested researchers for long because of their shared features. Among all the characteristics of mental imagery that are potentially related with hallucination, vividness has been most substantively examined. This review summarized theories and empirical evidences for the relationship between mental imagery vividness and hallucination. Although still in its budding stage, relevant neurological evidences were also examined. Theoretical Models Vividness of mental imagery can be defined as the degree of perceptual detail experienced when having a mental image (Oertel et al., 2009). It has been associated with hallucination and schizophrenia for decades. In 1883, Galton suggested that increased vividness of mental imagery might be associated with hallucinatory experiences (as cited in Aleman, Bocker, de Haan, 1999). Later in the 20th century, West (1962) and Horowitz (1975) proposed separate models suggesting that hallucinations were mental images derived from internal source, but mistakenly attributed to external source. More specifically, the model suggested that vividness of perception was typically higher than that of mental imagery. As vividness of mental imagery increased, it became more difficult for the individual to decide its source as internal or external, and eventually these images could grow into hallucinatory. This model suggested that mental imagery and hallucination shared fundamental features and were possibly on the same continuum. Johnson and Raye (1981) supported the importance of imagery vividness, stating that memories from internal and external sources could usually be differentiated by comparing the amount of sensory, contextual and semantic attributes of events. Mintz and Alpert (1972) developed their model relevant to mental imagery vividness as well. They proposed that vividness of imagery was not the only factor contributing to hallucination. According to their argument, increased vividness of imagery, and impaired reality testing, referring to the ability to recognize the distortions in one’s own perception, are necessary but not sufficient prerequisites to generation of hallucination. Bentall (1990) summarized predecessors’ work and introduced the concept of â€Å"reality discrimination† – the idea that â€Å"hallucinators mistake their own inte rnal, mental, or private events for external, publicly observable events†. They stated that one type of information used in the reality discrimination process was the amount of sensory information present in conscious: rich sensory information implied a perception being experiences, while poor sensory information implied a mental imagery. Following this argument, individuals who have the propensity to construct images rich in sensory details are more likely to experience their internal imagery as a perception experience, and thus resulting in hallucination. Barrett (1993) provided empirical evidences in support of the above hypothesis, yet he also pointed out some questions of the model. He argued that it was unclear where the locus of the imagery effects was. The imagery vividness discrepancy between individuals with and without hallucinations could be the result of either storage or retrieval difference of sensory information. Specifically, it could be that hallucinators were able to store more abundant sensory information than nonhallucinators; and it could also be that hallucinators were better at retrieving sensory information than nonhallucinators, with same storage capacity. Despite of some questioning opinions, there are very limited direct theoretical dissents or alternative models. Holt (1972) is one of the very few that he argued that hallucination and mental imagery involved independent systems and should not correlate with each other. However, this is not saying that the hypotheses of mental imagery vividness and hallucination have not been subject to scrutinize. A large amount of researchers have attempted to verify or disprove these hypotheses through empirical evidences. Below is an incomplete summary of the empirical studies that are relevant. Empirical Evidences Evidences in Support Mintz and Alpert (1972) provided empirical evidences in support of their own hypothesis. Their study found that auditory hallucinating schizophrenics had a significantly higher vividness of auditory mental imagery comparing to non-hallucinating controls. They also identified an impaired ability to assess the accuracy of auditory perceptions in hallucinating schizophrenics. Similar results were presented by other studies. Barrett (1993) found that nonclinical subjects with hallucinations had higher vividness of mental imagery, and at the same time, had lower control of these images comparing to nonclinical subjects without hallucinations. Barrett’s (1993) study differed from that of Mintz and Alpert (1972) in the sense that he assessed mental imagery vividness on all seven sensory modalities, with one single factor emerged after factor analysis – general imagery vividness factor. In another study by Bocker (2000), no group difference in perceptual acuity was identified between the schizophrenia group and the normal controls, suggesting perceptual degradation is not a reason for hallucination. For the hallucinating schizophrenia patients, the vividness for visual imagery was significantly lower than control, while that for auditory imagery was not. Although the decreased visual mental imagery contradicted with earlier studies, the relatively high auditory mental imagery ability suggested the possibility that auditory imagery for hallucinating patients was more percept-like and thus harder to differentiate, which is in line with the fact that most of the patients experienced hallucinations in auditory modality. Evidences in Contradiction Brett and Starker (1977) found no significant difference of auditory mental imagery vividness between hallucinating schizophrenics, nonhallucinating schizophrenics medical patients with no history of psychiatric problems. Starker and Jolin (1982) also found no significantly different vividness strength of auditory mental imagery between schizophrenics, possible schizophrenics, or nonschizophrenic psychiatrics, nor between schizophrenic subgroups of currently hallucinatory, previously hallucinatory, or nonhallucinatory. In fact, Starker and Jolin (1982) suggested that hallucinating schizophrenics might actually have less vivid auditory imagery than schizophrenics who had never hallucinated. Aleman et al.’s (1999) study revealed interesting results. In their study, hallucinating subjects reported higher imagery vividness than nonhallucinating controls when subjective (self-report) scales were used to measure vividness. However, the pattern was reversed (i.e. hallucinating subjects demonstrated lower mental imagery vividness) when objective measure was used. Van de Ven and Merckelbach (2003) examined the mental imagery vividness and fantasy proneness in non-clinical population with and without hallucination experiences. They found that although subjects with hallucination scored higher on mental imagery vividness than subjects without such experiences, their imagery vividness was highly correlated with their fantasy proneness. Further analysis indicated that hallucination experience was better predicted by fantasy proneness, comparing to mental imagery vividness. Sack and his colleagues (2005) incorporated in their study measures sensitive to cognitive capacity, in order to rule it out as a confounding variable. Their results showed that paranoid schizophrenics reported higher vividness of mental imagery in comparison to age- and sex-matched healthy controls, controlling for general intelligence and psychomotor speed of the subjects. More importantly, the higher imagery vividness of paranoid schizophrenics was not statistically dependent of the patients’ individual psychopathology, including the presence of hallucinations. The authors thus argued that mental imagery could be an independent trait marker of schizophrenia, and it operated on a separate system with hallucination for schizophrenics. Sack and colleagues (2005) also found that patient group performed worse on tasks that require involvement of mental imagery processes, which could indicate an impaired overall mental imagery ability. However, this performance deficit could be attributed to general cognitive capacity deficit. In comparison, Doninger, Silipo, Rabinowics, Snodgrass and Javitt (2001) conducted a study with a task that was more purely targeted at mental imagery ability without time constraint. Their results also revealed worse performance from schizophrenia patients comparing to healthy controls. Results of these studied implied the possibility that group difference in vividness of mental imagery is not due to an enhancement of mental imagery abilities, but to altered information processing. Oertel and colleagues (2009) conducted a further study to address the question that whether vividness of mental imagery is a trait marker of the schizophrenia spectrum (i.e. including non-clinical population with schizophrenia-like traits – schizotypy) that is independent of presence of hallucination. Subjects include schizphrenia patients, first-degree relatives of schizophrenics, as well as high- and low-schizotypy healthy controls. Results showed significantly higher mental imagery vividness across all modalities in schizophrenics, first-degree relatives, as well as high-schizotypy controls comparing to low-schizotypy controls, with cognitive abilities controlled. In replication of Sack et al.’s work, this study also revealed that the vividness of mental imagery and hallucinations were independent of each other. Results also indicated that first-degree relatives obtained highest score in vividness, and high-schizotypy controls’ score did not differ significantly from that of schizophrenia patients. The results strengthened Sack et al.’s (2005) argument that vivid imagery is a trait marker of schizotypyrather, and could be related to the genetic liability to develop schizophrenia. However, longitudinal studies including premorbid data are required for further investigation. Bell and Halligan (2010) repeated Oertel et al.’s study on high- and low-schizotypy population with a larger sample size, yet with a different measure of schizotypy and a specific assessment of visual mental imagery. Their results revealed no significant difference on visual mental imagery vividness between the two groups. Explanation for Results Variation Although large variations exist across different studies, it is not justified to say whether the hypothesis of high mental imagery vividness predicts hallucination has been rejected or not. The main reason for failing to do so is that procedures, especially the measures of mental imagery, of these studies varies a lot, thus leaving considerable space for alternative explanations. Specifically, some of the measures were subjective scale (i.e. self-report), while some of the measures were objective (i.e. behavioral tasks). On the other hand, some of the measures assess mental imagery vividness of a single sensory modality, while some of them assess mental imagery vividness as a whole across all seven sensory modalities. S ubjective Measure vs. Objective Measure of Mental Imagery Kosslyn, Brunn, Cave and Wallach (1984) had presented an insignificant relation between performance on an objective task of visual imagery acuity and a self-report imagery vividness measure, indicating that subjective and objective measures of imagery vividness may not be necessarily measuring the same constructs and/or processes. Aleman et al. (1999) pointed out that objective and subjective mental imagery measures could yield contradictory results within the normal population. This distinction could be true for clinical population as well. For example, Mintz and Alpert (1972) utilized subjective measures (suggestion paradigms or self-report measures) and obtained the finding of an association between increased mental imagery and hallucinations, while Bocker et al. (2000) used a more objective mental imagery task, resulting in insignificant difference of mental imagery performance between patients and controls. Aleman et al. (1999), who generated contradicting results of subjective and objective measures in one study, summarized the disadvantages of subjective and objective measures. For subjective measures, the process of introspection is involved, which is an ability varied across individuals, and can be especially impaired in hallucinating and/or schizophrenia populations. Also, the effect of social demand could influence a subject’s self-report, depending on how the concept of mental imagery vividness is interpreted. Subject’s idiosyncratic definition of imagery vividness also heavily impact his/her self-report. For objective measures, tasks are not real-life resembling, which can fail to evaluate one’s true capacity in daily life. In addition, commonly used objective measures fail to purely target at the vividness of mental imagery alone, other processes such as conceptualization and reasoning are in effect as well. In addition, the contents of cued mental images could largely vary across individuals. Standardized scoring procedure fail to take into account these confounding processes and experiences, indicating that high imagery vividness does not guarantee a high score as it is designed to, and vice versa. General Mental Imagery vs. Single Sensory Modality Mental Imagery Barrett (1993) introduced the idea of general imagery vividness factor. If that is a valid factor, then measurement of general mental imagery vividness and measurement of single sensory modality imagery vividness could be more different than the mere part-whole relationship. Mintz and Alpert (1972) measured auditory imagery vividness only, and Barrett (1993) measured general mental imagery vividness. These two studies both resulted in significant difference of imagery vividness between halluciantors and controls. However, Brett and Starker (1977) and Starker and Jolin (1982) both measured auditory only imagery vividness and resulted in no significant difference between hallucinators and controls. In addition, in replication of Oertel’s (2009) study, Bell and Halligan (2010) changed the general imagery vividness measure to a visual-specific mental imagery measure, and their results differed from that of Oertel et al.. Bell and Halligan (2010) proposed that vividness per se might not be modality specific, and this argument is in line with the modality-independent salience dysregulation theories of psychosis and the psychosis continuum (Murray, Lappin, Di Forti., 2008). Neurological Evidence Despite of the fact that neurological evidences for mental imagery and hallucination experiences did not start to bloom until late 20th century (Linden et al., 2010) and that there is no specific neurological evidence for mental imagery vividness’s relationship with hallucination, this session is included as it provides new perspectives on how experiences of mental imagery and hallucination overlap. Evidences from earlier studies suggested that imagery and hallucinations were associated with overlapping neural networks (Allen, Laroi, McGuire, Aleman, 2008). McGuire et al. (1995) and Shergill et al. (2001) found that auditory mental imagery and auditory hallucination were involved with overlaps in fronto temporal language circuits. In terms of the main difference between hallucination and mental imagery – voluntary controllability, Linden et al. (2011) speculated that it was generated from the altered forward model of sensory productions. Forward model (Wolpert, Ghahramani, Jordan, 1995) stated that perceptual consequences were predicted upon known actions, and the prediction in turn influenced the actual experience of the self-generated action. The forward model could be in effect in speech production. According to it, self-generated speech is subject to prediction of resulted sensory experience. This hypothesis was partially supported by Linden et al.’s (2011) study. They found that the voice-selective area on the banks of superior temporal sulcus (STS) was consistently activated during auditory hallucination and voluntary auditory mental imagery. This area had been regarded as reacting to external sensory stimulation only, but it was later speculated of having been monitoring the self-generated speech in mental imagery and hallucination. Linden et al. (2011) identified in their study that the monitoring and modulating functioning of relevant auditory regions were disturbed in nonclinical hallucinators, resulting in the likelihood of attributing internally generated speech to external sources. These budding evidences suggested that hallucination and mental imagery indeed share fundamental neural networks and do not operate on completely distinctive systems. However, detailed examinations of the activity of these neural networks in terms of different features of mental imagery and hallucination, as well as differed neural system contributing to their differences are still in need. Conclusion Mental imagery vividness has interested researchers for long because of their potential relationship with the experience of hallucination. However, empirical studies have resulted in contradicting results. Earlier studies proposed that increased vividness of mental imagery is a predictor of hallucination, and they have found that higher mental imagery vividness was related with hallucination experiences. Nevertheless, many of the later replications with various methodological modifications failed to reproduce any significant relationship. Because of the variations of measurement of mental imagery vividness, it is hard to decide whether the hypothesis of the relationship between mental imagery vividness and hallucination can be rejected or not. The development of neuroscience based study methods provided a new perspective of testing the hypothesis. Current neurological studies have focused on neural activity comparison between general mental imagery process and hallucination experience. More specific studies targeting at features of mental imagery and hallucination are needed to provide a higher-level understanding of the relationship between the two experiences. Reference Aleman, A., Bocker, K.B.E., de Haan, E.H.F. (1999). Disposition towards hallucinations and subjective versus objective vividness of imagery in normal subjects. Personality and Individual Differences, 27, 707-714. Allen, P., Laroi, F., McGuire, P., Aleman, A. (2008). The hallucinating brain: a review of structural and functional neuroimaging studies of hallucinations. Neuroscience Biobehavioral Reviews, 32, 175-191. Barrett, T.R. (1993). Verbal hallucinations in normals, II: Self-reported imagery vividness. Personality and Individual Differences, 15, 61-67. Barrett, T. R., Etheridge, J. B. (1992). Verbal hallucinations in normals, I: People who hear ‘voices’. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 6, 379-387. Bell, V., Halligan, P. W. (2009, April). Additional data on whether vividness of visual mental imagery is linked to schizotypal traits in a non-clinical population [Letter to the editor]. Psychiatry Research, 178, 568-569. Bentall, R.P. (1990). The illusion of reality: A review and integration of psychological research on hallucinations. Psychological Bulletin, 107, 82-95. Bocker, K. B. E., Hijman, R., Kahn, R.S., de Haan, E. H. F. (2000). Perception, mental imagery and reality discrimination in hallucinating and non-hallucinating schizo phrenic patients. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 39, 397-406. Brett, E. A., Starker, S. (1977). Auditory imagery and hallucinations. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 164, 394–400. Doninger, G.M., Silipo, G., Rabinowics, E.F., Snodgrass, J.G., Javitt, D.C. (2001). Impaired sensory processing as a basis for object-recognition deficits in schizophrenia. American Journal of Psychiatry, 158, 1818-1826. Finke, R.A. (1989). Principles of mental imagery. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Holt, R. R. (1972). On the nature and generality of mental imagery. In P. W. Sheehan (Ed.), The function and nature of imagery. New York, NY: Academic Press. Horowitz, M. (1975). Hallucinations: An information processing approach. In R. K. Siegel, L. J. West (Eds.), Hallucinations: Behavior, Experience and Theory (pp.163-196.95). New York, NY: Wiley. Johnson, M. K., Raye, C. L. (1981). Reality monitoring. Psychological Review, 88, 67-85. Kail, R. (1997). Processing time, imagery, and spati al memory. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 64, 67-78. Kosslyn, S.M. (1994). Image and brain: the resolution of the imagery debate. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Kosslyn, S. M., Brunn, J., Cave, K. R., Wallach, R. W. (1984). Individual differences in mental imagery ability: A computational analysis. Cognition, 18, 195-243. Linden, D. E. J., Thornton, K., Kuswanto, C. N., Johnston, S. J., Jackson, M. C. (2011). The brain’s voices: Comparing nonclinical auditory hallucinations and imagery. Cerebral Cortex, 21, 330–337. McGuire, P., Silbersweig, D., Murray, R., David, A., Frackowiak, R. Frith C. (1996). Functional anatomy of inner speech and auditory verbal imagery. 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Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory: A Qualitative Study

Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory: A Qualitative Study From the time of conception until death, humans undergo incessant changes. One would experience biological, psychological and cognitive changes as one progresses in life. It leads to a change in the way one thinks and behaves. Development is the systematic change that takes place in an individual over the course of life (Shaffer and Kipp 2009: 2). The development of a human being is influenced by factors of nature and nurture. Based on these factors, various psychologists have proposed theories pertaining to human development. Particularly, psychologists have been interested in how one’s personality develops; whether personality is inherent or whether it is shaped by one’s experiences and environment. Among such psychologists was Erik Erikson who proposed the psychosocial theory of development. Erikson was a follower of Freud and accepted many of the idea’s that Freud introduced, however Erikson made modifications to Freud’s ideas and introduced the theory of psychosocial development (Erikson 1963, 1982 cited in Shaffer and Kipp 2009: 44). Freud believed that the stages of personality development was influenced by the maturation of sex instinct, this theory was termed psychosexual development (cite needed). Psychosexual theory of development focuses essentially on the unconscious mind. The id, ego and superego are the components of personality and these three components develop in accordance to the stages of psychosexual development. There are 5 stages of psychosexual development; the oral, anal, phallic, latency and finally the genital stage. The extent to which conflicts are resolved in each of these stages influence one’s personality later in life. Erikson modified this theory by emphasizing more on social and cultural influences on development and personality, rather than the influence of sex instinct and urges. The psychosocial theory of development constructs a series of 8 stages of psychosocial conflict that one would encounter at various stages of life. Each stage consists of a major crisis. The time at which each crisis emerges is dependent on factors of biological maturation and social demands that one would encounter during various phases of life. The extent to which an individual resolves each conflict affects the psychological development and personality of the individual (citation needed). Early life experiences, therefore, are assumed to have a significant impact on the way in which one would think about the world, the way one would form social relationships and on what one would think about oneself. To determine how Erikson’s psychosocial theory of development may contribute in explaining how interpersonal relationships, emotion and personality are shaped, particularly in individuals of the Sri Lankan context, a structured interview was formulated and 2 individuals were interviewed based on how he/she looks back on his/her life. The interview provides means of obtaining qualitative data about the participants’ lives with respect to the psychosocial development that has and is taking place. The sample for the interview consisted of a 25 year old Sri Lankan male who was married and a 50 year old Sri Lankan female who was divorced, single and had 2 children. The occupation of the participant A (the male participant) was mechanical engineering and participant B (the female participant) worked as a confidential secretary. Before the interview was conducted, each participant was briefed on the purpose of the interview and the method in which the interview would take plac e, then were asked if he/she would like to participate in the study. Information regarding the expected duration of the interview and the nature of the questions that would be asked was also given to the participants prior to the interview so that the participant would be fully aware of what the consequences of taking part in the study would be. The interview was a structured interview; 38 open ended questions were devised and there was an average of 4 questions relating to each of the 8 stages of Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development. After the participants agreed to participate in the study a face to face interview was conducted at each of the participants’ homes. Before the interview began the participants were briefed on confidentiality being maintained, their rights to not answer questions that they wished not to answer and they were given the right to withdraw at any moment they wished. The participants then signed a consent form and the interview proceeded. Stage 1: Trust versus mistrust The first stage of psychosocial development is believed to take place during infancy (0 – 1 year). At this stage the relationship between the infant and mother is of importance. In order to cultivate a healthy balance between trust and mistrust the infant should not be overprotected and overindulged yet the infant should be cared for and not neglected. If the infant is abused or neglected at this stage the infant’s basic trust will be destroyed and mistrust would be fostered. When one has mistrust one tends to expect that the world would bring more bad his/her way than good. One may find it difficult to trust friends and loved ones, even society. Mistrust may even cause an individual to be more avoidant of exposure to risks because the individual feels that the world is dangerous and inconsistent. Contrastingly, if the infant is overprotected by the mother the infant may develop a false sense of trust. Insulation from any form of unexpectedness may amount to sensory dis tortion and the individual may become naive. Such individuals are generally optimistic. In the interview conducted, questions were asked to determine how trusting the participant was of the world. When asked about what the participant thinks the future holds, participant A stated that he was optimistic to a certain extent about the future and the responses that participant A provided revealed that he did not seem to have difficulty in trusting other individuals. Participant A believed that the world is good yet has its ugly when asked whether the participant thinks the world is a bad place. Using the psychosocial theory of development participant A appears to have a healthy balance between trust and mistrust. Therefore it can be inferred that as an infant the participant obtained sufficient affection and care without being overprotected. Participant B, however, was pessimistic about the future, failed to see any good in the world and did not seem to trust other individuals with ease . Mistrust seems to have fostered more in participant B and this may be as a result of neglect during infancy. However the degree to which this theory is effective can be of question. Participant B’s mistrust may not be a result of experience during infancy, instead it may be an experience from later in life. The individual is divorced and the failed marriage may be a better explanation for why the individual is pessimistic and finds it difficult to trust others. Stage 2: Autonomy versus shame and doubt Between the age of 1 and 3, exerting independence becomes a key challenge for the child. The child begins to gain control over his/her body and is able to explore surroundings. If the child is ridiculed for his/her attempts at autonomy the child may become doubtful and ashamed of handling situations and problems on his/her own. Participant A’s responses to the questions based on autonomy took no extremes but rather fell on middle ground. The responses revealed that the participant made decisions independently and did not rely on others for matters that needed to be handled himself, however would seek help occasionally when in doubt. Participant B, however, still relied on parents for assistance when making important decisions in life and would ask for assistance when facing difficulty or if doubtful about what to do. Therefore, it can be assumed that participant B is less autonomous than participant A. However in the Sri Lankan culture it is not common to find adults still see king his/her parents for advice. Families in Sri Lankan culture are closely knit. Even as children grow into adults, the relationship with parents remain strong and it is quite common to find that elderly parents continue to live with their adult children and grandchildren. This closeness and confidence could be the reason why individuals still ask parents for advice even as an adult, not because of autonomy as a toddler. In this sense Erikson’s theory may be ethnocentric and not quite applicable in Sri Lankan culture. Stage 3: Initiative versus guilt This stage takes place between the age of 3 and 6 years. In addition to autonomy, the child now learns qualities of planning and undertaking tasks for the sake of being active. Guilt is a result of being reprimanded for adventure and experimentation. At this stage in a child’s life Erikson highlights the importance of adventure and play no matter how puerile it may appear to the parent of supervisor. Preventing an individual from initiation at this stage may have an effect on the individual’s confidence to initiate in later life and may instil fear that the individual is wrong or would be disapproved. However the child should still experience the consequence of mistakes and learn through trial and error so that the child does not turn out to be irresponsible so that the child’s conscience develops and so that he/she does not become boastful in nature. Stage 4: Industry versus inferiority From the age of 7 to 12, the child’s cognitive capabilities increase drastically. The competence of the child develops and the child begins to engage in meaningful activity. Involvement in extracurricular activities in school may help the child prepare to enter life and become industrious as an adult. Contrastingly if the child does not experience the satisfaction that achievement brings, experiences failure in school work and activities, or is denied the opportunity to develop his/her unique potential and participate in school activities, in later life the individual may feel useless, unable to contribute or work in teams. Moreover, a certain amount of failure is important too so that the child has a sense of modesty. The balance between modesty and competence if important. One develops the virtue purpose if successful in this stage. Stage 5: Identity versus role confusion Adolescence (age 12 to 18 years) is a major stage of development of an individual. One becomes increasingly independent, one begins to think of the future in terms of the career one wishes to occupy and the type of lifestyle one wishes to follow. In making such decisions one must learn the roles that one will occupy as an adult. What should happen at the end of this stage, according to Bee, is â€Å"a reintegrated sense of self, of what one wants to do or be, and of one’s appropriate sex role† (Bee 1992 cited in McLeod 2013). Individuals begin to explore possibilities and based on the result of such explorations, one’s identity is formed. Forcing an identity upon a youth would cause diffusion in which the individual lacks any form of commitment or passion. The youth would become rebellious or unhappy. In failing to form one’s identity, one may experience foreclosure where the youth adopts an identity of convenience precipitately. The youth that is unable t o form his/her own identity becomes confused about his/her role in society. Individuals would develop the virtue of fidelity if successful in this stage. Although Erikson’s theory describes the development of fidelity the theory does not explain how the development takes place. It is difficult to test the theory in this area and it is not falsifiable. The relationship between exploration as a youth and development of identity is vague. Participant A in the interview had strict parents and was not allowed to explore and adventure as a teenager yet seems to have fidelity and a strong identity. This contradicts the psychosocial theory of development. Stage 6: Intimacy versus isolation In young adulthood (18 to 40 years), one starts to share oneself and one’s space more intimately with another individual. It starts with exploring a relationship with an individual other than a family member, which in turn could lead toward a long term commitment to that individual. Avoidance of intimacy and commitment to a relationship could lead to isolation or even depression. If an individual succeeds in this stage the individual develops the virtue of love. However in a country that has arranged marriages it is difficult to see how willing one is to share one’s personal space with another. It could just be that the individual is forced to be in a committed relationship with another individual. The obligation to remain in the relationship would be present without love. In this case determining the successfulness of an individual at this stage is difficult. Stage 7: Generativity versus stagnation This stage occurs during middle adulthood (between 40 and 65 years). The individual starts to feel more involved in the world and a part of a bigger picture. Moreover, one would become more productive in terms of one’s career or in terms of raising one’s children. Some may even become involved in community activities and organizations that would benefit society. Failure in being generative in these ways would cause an individual to feel unproductive and stagnant in society. This stage is important for the development of the virtue care. Stage 8: Integrity versus despair As one steps into old age (65 years and over), one becomes unable to be as productive as one use to be. Therefore at this stage one starts to reflect on one’s life in terms of how satisfied one is with how he/she lived life. Integrity develops as a result of one seeing oneself as successful in life. According to Erikson, if one is disappointed and feels one did not accomplish the life goals one had, the individual would develop despair. Whilst the psychosocial theory is an aid in capturing central development issues in the 8 stages, it is still difficult to use the theory as an explanation of as to how and why such development comes about and Erikson acknowledges this (Erikson 1964 cited in McLeod 2013). There is no explicit explanation for how the degree of development at one stage affects the degree of development at another stage. The psychosocial theory of development is claimed to be universal however it is difficult to apply in certain cultures. For the solution of crises there is no universal mechanism that can be applied. It may vary from culture to culture. Moreover, the psychosocial theory of development, similar to the psychosexual theory of development, is not falsifiable and is difficult to test empirically. The lack of empiricism is one reason why developmentalists prefer other viewpoints of development, typically the learning viewpoint, rather than the psychoanalytical viewpoint. Despite the criticisms of the psychosocial theory of development, there is still support for Erikson’s 8 stages of personality development (McAdams 2001). The emphasis on the fact that individuals undergo development actively rather than passively and that humans are not subject to irrational urges is a quality that Erikson introduced after improving Freud’s psychosexual theory (Erikson 1963 cited in Shaffer and Kipp 2009: 44). Many find it easier to accept that humans are rational and there is interaction of both biology and social influences, with ego playing a greater role than id. The psychosocial theory indeed has provided understanding to the development that occurs through various stages of life. The impact that relationships with family, friends and peers has on development has been brought to light and this theory can be applied to the education setting, work setting and even help improve parenting methods. Therefore despite the limitations of the psychosocial theory, the contribution to the field of developmental psychology that Erikson has made, in terms of the psychosocial stages of development, is certainly valuable. List of References McAdams, D. P. (2001) ‘The Psychology of Life Stories’. Review of General Psychology 5 (2), 100 McLeod, S. (2013) Erik Erikson [online] available from www.simplypsychology.org/Erik-Erikson.html> [19 March 2014] Shaffer, D. R., and Kipp, K. (2009) Developmental Psychology: Childhood and Adolescence. 8th edn. Australia: Cengage Learning TWas The Dopolavoro A Success? TWas The Dopolavoro A Success? To What Extent Was The Dopolavoro A Success? Plan Of Investigation This essay will analyse the extent of the Dopolavoros success within Italian society between the years 1925 and 1939. The Dopolavoro was a leisure program under the organization Opera Nazionale Dopolavoro (OND) and was created initially to help gain the support of the Italian working class after the ban on trade unions. In addition to controlling Italian dissatisfaction within the state, the OND saw these programs as a further area of competition with the Socialists, who had similar social organizations. Seeing that it tried to gain the support of employers, there was nothing characteristically fascist about it. However, after Augusto Turatis rise to party secretary in 1927, the Dopolavoro became another supporting element of Mussolinis regime. Despite propaganda having a wide range presence, Italian society was not affected to the extent that the government wished, leading to the question, to what extent was the Dopolavoro a success? The two sources presented approach the topic in a relatively different manner. John Whittams Fascist Italy describes the course taken on this subject by a purely subjective viewpoint and analyses the factual information. Martin Blinkhorn on the other hand, in Mussolini and Fascist Italy, promotes a objective opinion on the Dopolavoro and the Italian state while criticizing it for its manipulation and deceptive attitude. Conclusively, an evaluation of the extent to which this program was a success will be presented through the analysis of key factors. Summary Of Evidence Mussolini was appointed Prime Minister in 1922 The Dopolavoro was formed on the first of may in 1925. The Dopolavoro included adult leisure programs, facilities and welfare programs. This idea was introduced by an engineer Mario Giani. Edmondo Rossoni promoted Gianis schemes. It was ran by a government agency called Opera Nazionale Dopolavoro. It aimed at decreasing tension created after the ban on trade union-sponsored clubs. In the 1930s the Dopolavoro ranged from theater to bands and libraries. Initially, membership was limited to 300,000, in 1926 and grew to 4 million by 1939. The OND was the answer to Gianis plea for a national state sponsored plan. The OND took over former socialist buildings and used them as its facilities. Turati was appointed leader of the OND in 1927. The ONDs initial purpose was to deliver news on the agricultural sector. Increased membership urged the OND to put more emphasis on recreational activities. Sports activities and welfare programs were heavily funded and journeys to favorable locations were subsidized. In 1936, twenty per cent of urban workers joined, 7 per cent of rural members and 80 per cent of employees in state and private sectors. Company employees were granted better facilities and lounge areas. Class divisions were evident. The poorer classes were given the cheapest seats in addition to being separated from the higher classes. Evaluation Of Sources Fascist Italy by renowned historian John Whittam, is a concise introduction on the nature of Italian Fascism under Mussolini. This book was written to inform the reader of the Italian Fascist state in terms of politics, diplomacy and military developments, and in what ways the domestic sector was neglected. The provision of documents and recent research aided in analysing the origins of the movement and its political success. Within its far-reaching analysis, Whittam emphasizes Mussolinis attempt for social control and party-state tension. The successes and failures of the fascist state, as well as the collapse of the regime are analysed objectively. Mussolini and Fascist Italy, also written by renowned historian Martin Blinkhorn, explains the importance of Mussolini, the movement and the regime which overlooked Italian society between 1922 and World War 2. Furthermore, he examines the fascist partys rise to power and the creation of Mussolinis dictatorship through reason and rational arguments. Nevertheless, Blinkhorn portrays his argument by criticizing the fascist state for subjecting society totalitarianism and deception. Although he makes brief comments on certain aspects of the Dopolavoros success, his argument largely consist of its â€Å"abysmal failures†. Furthermore, the age of the book must be questioned. In contrast to Whittam who has exploited certain recent revelations, Blinkhorns resources rely on documents preceding 1980. Analysis Like several other dictators, Mussolini too tried to tie his people closer with fascist beliefs and incorporate the masses to the fascist regime. An attempt was made to achieve this by introducing certain programs to the Italian people. These included adult leisure programs, facilities and welfare programs. On May first 1925 the Dopolavoro was formed, ran by a government agency called the Opera Nazionale Dopolavoro (OND). Initially, this idea of social engineering was introduced by Mario Giani, an engineer and a former manager of Westinghouse plant at Vado Ligure. Edmondo Rossoni, an Italian Fascist politician, acknowledged Gianis schemes for common activities and arranged for them to be introduced to his rapidly growing syndicalist organization. The upholding of the relationship between employers was crucial, seeing that such a project required increased funding as well as buildings and recreation grounds. Gianis plans seemed to be put in peril by suspicion placed on Rossoni on beha lf of the employers. Giani saw the risk in going through with his schemes under the current situation so he requested a national, state-sponsored plan. The solution to this appeal was the Opera Nazionale Dopolavoro. The remains of the Socialist Partys establishments aided the emergence of the Dopolavoro â€Å"with its chambers of labour, co-operatives and leagues many of them with mutual aid societies, communal halls and facilities for social and sporting events.† The squadristi, commonly known as The Blackshirts, destroyed many of these; the fascists simply took over those which remained intact. Mussolini appointed Turati, the party secretary, as leader of the OND two years after its establishment, and proceeded to integrate it as a central aspect of the National Fascist Party. The party representative in the provinces was responsible for assembling a board to supervise the area, and all Dopolavoro activities, as well as those sponsored by the employers, would be managed by its members. Originally, the OND was meant to inform the workers of new techniques and developments in the industrial sector. However, as the organization grew, more efforts were put in enhancing sports activities, summer camps, subsidized journeys to the mountains and the sea, cheap rail fares and welfare programs. It aimed at â€Å"re-educating† the Italian people as a whole, instead of brain washing them from an early age. It aimed at providing leisure/after-work activities within a fascist atmosphere. Also the Dopolavoro aimed at decreasing the workers irritation with the fascist ban on the trade union-sponsored clubs. Reaching the 1930s the Dopolavoro ranged from theater to bands and libraries. Initially, membership was estimated at 300,000 in 1926 and grew to almost four million by 1939. Reaching 1936, twenty per cent of urban workers took part, 7 per cent of rural members and 80 per cent of employees in state and private sectors. Many of the state and private employees were granted access to clubs, shops and athletic facilities provided by their respective company. What separated these benefits from the publicly used ones was the difference in their superiority. Even though organization was used to â€Å"demolish† barriers, class divisions were evident. During their excursions boarding railways or steamers, lower classes were separated from the higher ones and were given the poorest seats. Nevertheless, they saw no reason to complain, seeing that it was the first time for most of them to ever board a train or a boat, let alone go to the sea and the Alps. In order to clarify the extent of the Dopolavoros success, we must first distinguish the nature of its success. In this respect there are two criteria which have to be taken in mind. Social indoctrination of fascist ideology and diversion of mass awareness and attention. The ONDs initial cause was to provide after-hours leisure activities, so it should come as no surprise that they neglected direct ideological indoctrination as priority. However, during the 1930s (with Starace as party secretary) the importance of the OND as an instrument of propaganda was understood. In the cordial environment of the OND clubs and excursions, the masses were exposed to the success, failures and problems of the party. This was particularly worrisome for the regime as they made great efforts to avoid fanatical reactions. All they wished for was for passive acceptance of the given situation. The OND distributed government issue radios. Although these were considered a luxury item (300,000 in 1932, over a million in 1938), collective listening was encouraged. This was a measure taken for regulating information. The regime issued these radios so as to censor most information and prevent any public aggravation. Due to its recent appearance, the radio was highly favored. Moreover, through the OND, millions of people were exposed to propaganda and entertainment plans. This was an advantageous step for both the government and the illiterate. The ONDs use of the radio as well as the cinema was very efficient in distracting the masses. The Dopolavoro even purchased mobile projectors and sent them to remoter areas. Despite the Dopolavoros efforts to create a â€Å"laid-back† atmosphere so as to keep a sense of serenity among the people while in parallel integrating them in the fascist regime, it is argued that the members were not affected by fascist propaganda, hence failing to meet the goal set from 1927 onwards which included fascist indoctrination within the masses. Conclusion Among the fruition of many institutions brought forth by the Italian government, the Dopolavoro (or OND) was without doubt the most popular. Evidence of its popularity lies in the fact that it survived even Mussolinis fall, at which point its name was altered to Ente Nazionale Assistenza Lavatori (National Organisation for Worker Assistance) in 1945. Throughout the course of its existence, the Dopolavoro proved to be invaluable in its efforts to divert attention from the partys social and economic issues by providing a widespread and diverse range of cultural and recreational activities. Moreover, it served as a buffer in response to societys discontent. Be this as it may, criticism is present in the fact that it facilitated the infiltration of government branches and aided the meeting of enemies of the regime without attracting attention of the police. The Dopolavoro attempted a more active approach in fascist indoctrination in the late 1930s, however due to the lack of radical thinking, it failed to meet the regimes wishes. As far as public unrest is concerned, the Dopolavoro was successful in toning it down by introducing various leisure activities aimed at decreasing social irritation. However, in its goal to instill the fascist ideology within the Italian people, not only did it meet a miserable fail, it proved to be highly inefficient and showed a direct contrast to the regimes intentions. Bibliography Blinkhorn Martin, Mussolini and Fascist Italy, Routledge 1987 De Grand J. Alexander, Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany, Routledge 1995 Kolinsky Martin, Continuity and change in European society: Germany, France and Italy since 1870, New York: St Martins Press 1974, 58 Marinetto Michael, Corporate Social Involvement: Social, Political and Environmental Issues in Britain and Italy, Ashgate Publishing 2005 Townley Edward, Mussolini and Italy, Heinemann Educational Publishers 2002 Whittam, John, Fascist Italy, Manchester University Press 1995 Whittock Martyn, Mussolini in Power, HarperCollinsPublishers Ltd 1998 Whittock Martyn, Mussolini in Power, HarperCollinsPublishers Ltd 1998, 4 Townley Edward, Mussolini and Italy, Heinemann Educational Publishers 2002, 91 Townley Edward, Mussolini and Italy, Heinemann Educational Publishers 2002, 91 Marinetto Michael, Corporate Social Involvement: Social, Political and Environmental Issues in Britain and Italy, Ashgate Publishing 2005, 124 Whittam, John, Fascist Italy, Manchester University Press 1995, 73 Whittock Martyn, Mussolini in Power, HarperCollinsPublishers Ltd 1998, 19-20 Whittock Martyn, Mussolini in Power, HarperCollinsPublishers Ltd 1998, 19-20 Blinkhorn Martin, Mussolini and Fascist Italy, Routledge 1987, 36 Whittam, John, Fascist Italy, Manchester University Press 1995, 73 Whittam, John, Fascist Italy, Manchester University Press 1995, 73 Whittam, John, Fascist Italy, Manchester University Press 1995, 73 De Grand J. Alexander, Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany, Routledge 1995, 71 Whittam, John, Fascist Italy, Manchester University Press 1995, 73 Kolinsky Martin, Continuity and change in European society: Germany, France and Italy since 1870, New York: St Martins Press 1974, 58 Whittam, John, Fascist Italy, Manchester University Press 1995, 73 Whittam, John, Fascist Italy, Manchester University Press 1995, 73 De Grand J. Alexander, Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany, Routledge 1995, 71 Whittam, John, Fascist Italy, Manchester University Press 1995, 73

Occupy Wall Street Movement Essays -- Political Science

Occupy Wall Street Movement If heavy student loan debt , soaring tuition fee, climbing taxes, plummeting financial aid, nose-diving employment opportunities, exacerbating inequality between common people and wealthy class, are some of the issues that infuriate you and lead you to blame government’s generous bailing out failed banks and other financial institutions then you cannot not know about Occupy Wall Street(OWS) movement. List all information you know about your subject Occupy Wall Street is one of the top 10 US protest movements inspired by popular revolts against authority in Egypt and Tunisia which finally led to toppling of their respective presidents. It began on 17th September 2011 in liberty square in Manhattan’s Financial District (occypywallst.org). As per Special news in Times Of India, OWS was initiated by Canadian Activist group, Adbusters. So far, this movement has spread over across 1500 cities globally and around 100 cities in US. According to Drake Benett, David Graeber is an anthropologist, who played a key role in transforming a small rally into global protest movement, this movement is in response to the common people’s frustrations and resentments with two important issues. The first issue is the influence of the corporates on government decision making system. The second issue is the way government treated debt issues of financial industry as opposed to individual borrowers as a consequence of financial crisis i n 2008.(Benett,†David Graeber-the Anti Leader of Occupy Wall Street, Oct,20011) According to the protesters, current dismal economic situation is a result of government bailing out the insolvent brokerage firms, banks and corporation in 2008. OWS has adopted the slogan; we are 99%. Paul... ...e a leader who is sensitive to issues and sensible enough to direct the movement to achieving its targeted goals and making us realize the dream of living in the utopian world! Works Cited Bennet, Drake. â€Å"David Graeber-The Anti-Leader Occupy Wall Street.† Business week. Bloomberg L.P, 26 Oct. 2011. Web. 19 Apr. 2012. Brenac, Sacha. â€Å"The Failures of Occupy Wall Street.† The Bullet. The Bullet, 25 Jan. 2012. Web. 19 Apr. 2012. Gray, Heather. â€Å"Occupy Wall Street vs Kingian Methods.† Positive Peace Warrior Network. N.p., 4 Oct. 2011. Web. 19 Apr. 2012. Krugman, Paul. â€Å"We Are the 99%.† New York Times. The New Yorks Time Co, 24 Nov. 2011. Web. 10 Apr. 2012. â€Å"99% vs 1%.† Times Of India. Bennett, Coleman & Co. Ltd, 1 Jan. 2012. Web. 19 Apr. 2012. Solomomn, Daniel. â€Å"Occupy Wall Street’s Failed Revolution.† PolicyMic. Mic Networks Inc., n.d. Web. 10 Apr. 2012.

DeShaney v. Winnebago County Department of Social Services (No. 87-154)

DeShaney v. Winnebago County was a landmark Supreme Court Case which was ruled on in February, 1989. The case revolved around Joshua DeShaney, a child who who was reportedly abused by his father, Randy DeShaney. In 1980, Joshua's parents divorced and his father won full custody. In 1983, Joshua was hospitalized for suspected abuse by his father. Winnebago County Department of Social Services got involved and four year old Joshua DeShaney was kept in the hospital's custody for three days. However, â€Å"On the recommendation of a 'child protection team,' consisting of a pediatrician, a psychologist, a police detective, the county's lawyer, several DSS caseworkers, and various hospital personnel, the juvenile court dismissed the case and returned the boy to the custody of his father.† (US Supreme Court). Over the next year, Winnebago's Department of Social Services visited the DeShaney household five times and each time, suspected child abuse was reported. In January and March of 1984, Joshua was reported too ill to be visited by social services for his bimonthly check ups. Evidently, he had been beaten to the point of slipping in to a life threatening coma by his father. Emergency brain surgery revealed that Joshua had a series of severe brain hemorrhages caused by head injuries inflicted over a long period of time. Joshua DeShaney survived, but he suffered severe brain damage and was not expected to ever make a full recovery. Joshua DeShaney's mother filed a lawsuit on his behalf, claiming that because DSS had taken no action to prevent the violence affecting her son, they had violated his right to liberty without the due process gauranteed to him by the Fourteenth Amendment. Joshua's mother sued under â€Å"42 U.S.C. 1983, alleg... ...nnebago County."  Wikipedia. N.p., 10 12 13. Web. 10 Jan 2014. . U.S. Supreme Court, . N.p.. Web. 10 Jan 2014. . Strauss, P.. N.p.. Web. 10 Jan 2014. . Cornell, . 10 Jan 2014. . . N.p.. Web. 10 Jan 2014. . . N.p.. Web. 10 Jan 2014. . . N.p.. Web. 10 Jan 2014. . "Estelle v. Gamble."  Wikipedia. N.p., 29 10 13. Web. 11 Jan 2014. . "Younberg v. Romeo."  Wikipedia. N.p., 5 11 12. Web. 11 Jan 2014. .

Psychological Effects one can have due to Sleep Deprivation Essay

According to Kozier et Al. (2002), sleep is the state of being conscious wherein there is a decrease of perception, and reaction to the environment of an individual (p. 953). Sleep exerts physiologic effects on both the nervous systems and other body structures and also it restores normal levels of activity and balance among parts of the nervous systems (p. 956). There are two types of sleep, NREM sleep and REM sleep, NREM sleep or non-REM sleep is a deep, restful sleep and some physiologic functions were decreased. It is also referred to as a low wave sleep because when a person sleeps the brain waves tends to slow than the alpha and beta waves of an awake person. NREM sleep is divided into four stages: stage 1- very light sleep wherein the person feels drowsy and relaxed, stage 2- light sleep that will last only from ten to fifteen minutes, stage 3- domination of parasympathetic nervous systems that slows down the heart and respiratory rates as well as other body processes and sometimes snoring may occur and the fourth stage will be the deep sleep is thought to restore the body physically, dreams and rolling of the eyes may occur in this stage. Another type of sleep is the REM sleep or the rapid eye movement sleep that constitutes 25% of sleep of a young adult and usually recurs every ninety minutes and lasts five to thirty minutes. On the other hand, dreams in REM sleep were usually remembered because it is consolidated in the memory (pp. 953-954). There are many factors that may affect sleep of an individual, quality of sleep and quantity of sleep were both affected by a number of factors. The quality of sleep is the ability of an individual to stay asleep and to get the required amount of REM and NREM sleep while the quantity of sleep is the total time the individual sleeps. Age, environment fatigue, life style, psychological stresses are just some of the factors that indeed affects the sleep of an individual (p. 956). Literature Review In an internet article, they listed six persons that have a contribution in sleep research. A French Scientist Henri Pieron authored a book entitled â€Å"Le probleme physiologique du sommeil,† which was the first text to examine sleep from a physiological perspective. This work is usually regarded as the beginning of the modern approach to sleep research. Dr. Nathaniel Kleitman, now known as the â€Å"Father of American sleep research,† he started working in Chicago in the 1920’s questioning the regulation of sleep and wakefulness and of circadian rhythms. Kleitman’s crucial work included studies of sleep characteristics in different populations and the effect of sleep deprivation. Another contributor is questioning the regulation of sleep and wakefulness and of circadian rhythms. Kleitman’s crucial work included studies of sleep characteristics in different populations and the effect of sleep deprivation. Dr. William C. Dement extended Dr. Kleitman’s path of research. Dement described the â€Å"cyclical† nature of nocturnal sleep in 1955, and in 1957 and ’58 established the relationship between REM sleep and dreaming. In 1958, he published a paper explaining that in a sleeping cat there is a cyclic organization existence, thus creating an explosion of fundamental research that gathers researchers from different fields of specialty. For the next 20 years, Michel Jouvet leads to an identification of REM sleep as an independent state of alertness, which he called â€Å"paradoxical sleep. Another one is H. Gastaut and his colleagues discovered the presence of apnea during sleep in a subgroup of â€Å"Pickwickian† patients (1965) that lead them to an outbreak of investigations of the control exercised by the â€Å"sleeping brain† on the body’s vital functions. His work eventually led to the new discipline of â€Å"sleep medicine† (A brief history of sleep research, â€Å"n. a. †). Sleep deprivation and its causes According to Kozier et Al. (2002), sleep deprivation is only one out of many common sleep disorders. They defined sleep deprivation as a syndrome of prolonged disturbance that leads the amount, quality, and consistency of sleep to decrease and thus produces a variety of physiologic and behavioral symptoms, its harshness will depend on the degree of the deprivation. Again there are two types of sleep deprivation REM and NREM deprivation, the combination of the two deprivation increases the severity of symptoms. Alcohol, barbiturates, shift work, jet lag, extended ICU hospitalization, morphine, and meperidine hydrochloride are the causes of REM deprivation, while all of the causes of REM deprivation plus diazepam flurazepam hydrochloride, hypothyroidism, depression, respiratory distress disorders, sleep apnea, and age causes NREM deprivation, and both REM and NREM deprivation is caused from the combination of both REM and NREM deprivation causes (p. 959). Another cause of sleep deprivation is from the psychological stress wherein anxiety and depression frequently disturb sleep. A person can’t relax adequately to get to sleep if he or she is having a personal problem. Another factor is alcohol and stimulants, people who drinks alcohol excessively has the higher rates of sleep disturbances. Alcohol disrupts REM sleep even though it fastens the onset of sleep. Diet- weight loss is accompanied with reduced total sleep time as well as broken sleep and earlier awakening. Smoking, cigarettes contains nicotine that has stimulating effects on the body and may cause in difficulty of falling asleep. Motivation, person’s desire to stay awake can cause a fatigue, and illness, an ill person is more prone to sleep deprivation, in their condition they need to have more sleep, but a patient in a hospital is disturb by their time to take their medicines, and respiratory conditions can also disturb sleep thus disturbing their total time of sleep a person is required to have (p. 956). Psychological and physical effects of sleep deprivation  The effects of sleep deprivation to the body is like a chain reaction, its main target is the brain, since the brain is the control unit of the body, the brain controls and is responsible for the homeostasis of the body, once the brain is affected many imbalances may occur. For REM deprivation excitability, restlessness, irritability, increased sensitivity to pain, confusion and suspiciousness, and emotional liability can possibly be the effects. For NREM deprivation one may show hyporesponsiveness, withdrawal, apathy, feeling physically uncomfortable, lack of facial expression, and speech deterioration. For both REM and NREM deprivation, inattentiveness, decreased reasoning ability and the ability to concentrate, marked fatigue manifested by blurred vision, itchy eyes, nausea, headache, difficulty in performing activities of daily living, lack of memory, mental confusion, visual or auditory hallucinations and illusions can be its primary effects to one’s both psychological and physical aspect of a person. Since stress is one of the major factor affecting sleep deprivation whether it’s psychological or physical stress. As you think more and focuses your mind into the problem, your mind will become more fatigue (p. 959). Based on the book by Biron et Al. (2006), stress may lead to some psychological problems and may interfere with effective intrapersonal and the intrapersonal behavior of the individual. A person experiencing prolonged stressful events may suffer from feelings of helplessness and hopelessness, and consequently, undermining his self esteem. Impaired task performance is another effect of stressful mind; it interferes with our ability to successfully perform a task and responsibilities expected. And disruption of cognitive functioning, people who are under stress are likely to experience loss of concentration, disorientation, and forgetfulness (pp. 184-185). Treatment for sleep deprived persons According to the book made by Kushida (2005), pregnant women are also prone to sleep deprivation. In treating sleep deprivation for pregnant women, they recommended seven treatments to minimize maternal and fetal health risk: a) women should try to seep on the left side and avoid sleeping in supine position.  Avoiding it will ease the stress of the heart, will reduce constriction of the space available to the fetus, will reduce pressure to the inferior vena cava that carries blood back to the heart from the feet and legs, b) if symptoms of RLS are present, consider an evaluation of ferritin, hemoglobin, and folate levels and supplement when indicated, c) treat sleeping- disordered breathing with CPAP, d) avoid staying in bed when unable to seep, e) address anxiety provoking issues to reduce overall level of arousal, f) Consider regular exercise, pregnant women who exercise three times a week for at least thirty minutes have less insomnia and anxiety than pregnant women who do not exercise, and g) treat psychophysiological insomnia with empirically supported cognitive behavioral therapy for insomnia (p. 185). Another form of treatment is discussed by Greist and Jefferson (1992), psychosurgery is a rare treatment; it is not then advisable if other treatments have not been tested to a patient. Careful neurosurgical interruption of brain pathways has been shown that fifty percent of patients has been helped to this kind of treatment (pp. 79-80). Conclusion: Sleep is really a helpful in obtaining our health; it restores our body’s energy. Sleep deprivation is not really a syndrome but an effect due to some disturbances, stress, and anxiety that makes our brain to send signal to our body to be awake, an unnecessary awakening that affects our total time of sleep.  When our body is stressful or lack of average sleep needed by each individual, our brain do not work properly thus affecting our lifestyle, our ability to think and cope up with problems, and then other diseases may occur if not immediately taken to concern, because stress attacks our brain and knowing that our brain is the control center of our body. Recommendation: If sleeplessness and the listed signs and symptoms occur, it will be a clever decision if you consult a Doctor immediately prior to health concern. It is also a best way if symposiums will be conducted or seminars that discuss about Sleep deprivation to school and or universities so that students and educators will be aware to the effects of sleep deprivation that one can possibly have due to body exhaustion and abuse.